1984 By George Orwell - With Outline Essays - Nineteen Eighty-Four

1984 by George Orwell - with Outline 1984 by George Orwell Outline Thesis Statement- This paper will examine how George Orwell wrote 1984 as a political statement against totalitarianism. I Introduction II Summary of 1984 III Roles of major Charters A. Big Brother B. Winston C. O'Brien D. Julia E. Shop owner IV Propaganda A. Ministry of Truth B. Ministry of Love V Orwell's thoughts on Totalitarianism A. From life experiences B. From a writers point of view VI Conclusion Introduction "Orwell observed that every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic socialism, as I understand it" ("George Orwell"). George Orwell has been a major contributor to anticommunist literature around the World War II period. Orwell lived in England during World War II, a time when the totalitarianism state, Nazi Germany, was at war with England and destroyed the city of London. " I know that building' said Winston finally. Its a ruin now. It's in the middle of the street outside the Palace of Justice.' That's right. Outside the Law Courts. It was bombed in-oh many years ago'" (Orwell 83). This reflects Orwell's own life experiences as a citizen in war torn England and how he uses this in 1984. George Orwell is famous for two major novels which attack totalitarianism. The first is Animal Farm a satire describing the leaders of the Soviet Union as animals on an animal farm. The seco nd novel is 1984 a story of dictators who are in complete control of a large part of the world after the Allies lost in World War II . The government in this novel gives no freedoms to its citizens. They live in fear because they are afraid of having bad thoughts about the government of Oceania, a crime punishable by death. This is the gem in Orwell's collection of novels against totalitarianism. This paper will show how George Orwell wrote 1984 as a political statement against totalitarianism. 1984 is about life in a world where no personal freedoms exist. Winston the main character, is a man of 39 who is not extraordinary in either intelligence or character, but is disgusted with the world he lives in. He works in the Ministry of Truth, a place where history and the truth is rewritten to fit the party's beliefs. Winston is aware of the untruths, because he makes them true. This makes him very upset with the government of Oceania, where Big Brother, a larger than life figure, contr ols the people. His dissatisfaction increases to a point where he rebels against the government in small ways. Winston's first act of rebellion is buying and writing in a diary. This act is known as a thought crime and is punishable by death. A thought crime is any bad thought against the government of Oceania. Winston commits many thought crimes and becomes paranoid about being caught, which he knows is inevitable (Greenblast 113). He becomes paranoid because he is followed by a young woman who is actively involved in many community groups. Winston is obsessed with the past, a time before Oceania was under strict dictatorship. He goes into an antique shop and buys a shell covered in glass which is another crime punishable by death. He sees the same woman following him. Many thoughts race through his mind "I wanted to rape you and then murder you afterwards. Two weeks ago I thought seriously of smashing your head in with a cobblestone. If you really want to know, I imagined that you had something to do with the Thought Police" (Orwell 101). The girl who was following him slipped him a note while at work. The note said "I love you"(90). They make plans to meet each other and carry on an illegal love affair. This love affair is another rebellion against the government. It goes on for some time. Winston rents a room where he and Julia can be secluded from the outside world. They meet a man named O'Brien who indicates that he is another revolutionary. Winston and Julia go to his house to meet with him. O'Brien gives than a seditious book to read. Soon after that, they are caught by the Thought Police and never see each other again. O'Brien,

What to Do With a Low SAT

What to Do With a Low SAT/ACT Score SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips You got your SAT/ACT score back, and it isn't what you'd hoped it'd be. Even though the SAT and ACT are each just a few hours long, the score you get often counts for a third or more of college admissions and can therefore have a big impact on your future. The fact that you're looking for solutions is a good first step. It's important, now more than ever, not to freak out and to instead calmly plan the best steps forward. In this article, we go over our top four tips for what to do with a low SAT or ACT score. Tip 1: Take the ACT/SAT Again Unless you're taking the ACT/SAT in December or February of your senior year, chances are you'll have another opportunity to take the test. The earlier you are in high school, the more time you'll have to work on improving your test score. If you're reading this in the fall of your senior year and still want to try to raise your test scores before you apply to college, I suggest getting online right now and registering for the next SAT or ACT (but you should first confirm that its scores will get to your schools in time). Taking the ACT/SAT is so powerful that, even if you don't prep much, your expected superscore can increase substantially (see here why superscoring means you should take it again). However, to make the most of a retake, you'll want to prep. To find out what the best way to prep is, check out our free book comparing SAT/ACT test prep methods. Tip 2: Take the Other Test If you've been taking only the ACT without having considered the SAT, try the SAT, and vice versa. The two tests actually have a lot of similarities these days, so you shouldn't have too much trouble switching to another test. If you're still not sure which test you'd be better at, take a look at our surefire "gold standard" technique to figure out the better test for you. Some students perform substantially better on one test;therefore, it's important to make sure you're taking the right test for you! Tip 3: Examine the Reasons You Did Poorly on the ACT/SAT It's important to analytically break down the reasons you did poorly on the ACT/SAT. For the SAT, you canrequest a copy of the test you took with your responses throughthe College Board's Question-and-Answer Service. This service lets you go over your incorrect answers and think about the reasons you might've got them wrong. This final tabulation can give you a clearer idea as to what you need to improve on a retake. If you took the ACT, you can request a Test Information Release (TIR). This service is similar to the SAT one above in that it lets you see your questions, answers, and an answer key. Once again, you can use this to your advantage by getting a better picture of your strengths and weaknesses. Once you understand what your weak points are on your test, you can target these more effectively using focused prep and official practice materials for the ACT and SAT. Tip 4: Get Stronger in Other Areas Good SAT/ACT scores are one of the quickest ways to bolster your admission chances. However, schools do look for other indications of your academic abilities and potential as well. In short, you can't just rely on your test scores alone! Here are some features that are certain to boost your chances of admission: A high GPA:To raise your GPA, you'll need to study hard for tests, do your homework correctly and turn it in on time, and pay more attention to your teachers during class. Quality recommendation letters:If you want solid recommendation letters for your college applications, you must take the time to develop strong relationships with your teachers over a number of years. Clubs: Extracurriculars can show that you're a committed and active student. But don't just join clubs- do well in them, too! Be aware that there is a catch, though. All of these qualities generally take years to develop, and if you have years, you might as well work on raising your SAT/ACT scores, too (which can improve substantially after intense, focused studying). If you don't have much time left before your applications are due, however, your two best options are as follows: Write a great admission essay:Pouring some extra time into your personal statement can leave a positive, lasting impression on the admission committee, even if the rest of your application isn't as strong. Word your application carefully:It's worthwhile to spend time making sure your overall application- especially any short responses- are the best quality possible. Ultimately, a lower SAT/ACT score doesn't necessarily mean that you won't get into the college of your dreams. Even if you don't make any big improvements on the ACT/SAT, you might still have a chance if you just pay a little more attention to other parts of your application! What's Next? What's a good SAT score? A good ACT score?Read our guides to learn what score you'll need on each exam to be considered good and great. Need more tips to help you get a great SAT/ACT score? Check out our comprehensive guides to learn the best SAT tips and ACT tricks out there. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Case Effective law office solutions, INC Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Case Effective law office solutions, INC - Essay Example Given the threat of existing rivals, the company ought to strategize and change customer relations which have been marked as the key cause of the deterioration. The current strategy of ELOS embraces more on advertising and sales promotion. The management has overlooked quality assurance and customer satisfaction and thus the failure. Note that the management has already noticed an increase in the number of complains. Markedly, lack of precise mode of receiving customer feedback has worsened the situation. As a counter measure, ELOS can consider instilling Customer relationship management (CRM) harmonizes sales, marketing and customer service (Goldenberg, 2008). Customers differ, have different tastes and expectations and thus the only way to satisfy them equally is to give them an opportunity to actively participate in decision making. It’s to my opinion that, an online platform that is managed from the main head-quarters can build a strong customer rapport. Essentially, the customer buyer interface should set standard that ensure high quality communication skills as well as accuracy and consistency of information. ELOS, marketing has been marked as successful and thus the management needs to shift some effort towards quality assurance. Legal offices need quality as most of their printings are official documents forwarded to their seniors. The clients need to maintain their reputation and a thus will put off any less quality printing regardless of the previous experience with the company. Therefore, ELOS ought to capture each client’s experience with immediate effect and correct if need be. Notably, a fault spreads more than a good doing (Johnston, & Marshall, 2013). Therefore, ELOS services should be focused on the customer needs rather than the organizations objectives. Quality should never be compromised with cost. Poor customer relation and quality deterioration has been marked as the cause of sales

The Role NGOs Play in Poverty in Developing Countries Essay

The Role NGOs Play in Poverty in Developing Countries - Essay Example As the essay declares the presence of poverty adds to these factors and makes the economic scenario worse for the developing nations. Thus one of the essential reforms in the developing nations is reducing the level of poverty.From the paper it is clear that  strategies for poverty reduction in a country include the various macroeconomic policies and social programmes that help in reducing poverty and stimulating economic growth. The social and structural programmes for reducing poverty in developing countries are designed after analysing the multidimensional effects of poverty. The ultimate objective of these policies is raising the quality of life of the poor. Generally such policies are associated with a deep involvement of the civil society. The civil society’s participation in the policies promotes the national ownership of the poverty reduction strategies. Poverty is a deep-rooted problem for any nation. Hence the strategies taken for its eradication also involve a lon g time horizon. This is the reason for the long-term perspective of poverty reduction strategie.   Various strategies are followed for poverty eradication in developing nations. The most popular among them is Ownership strategy. One of the most significant factors that contribute to the problem of poverty is the unequal distribution of economic resources, since this unequal distribution denies the access of economic resources to the poor. The ownership strategy of poverty reduction aims at an appropriate distribution of economic resources in the developing countries.   

Psychodynamic Theory and Trait Theory of Personality

Psychodynamic Theory and Trait Theory of Personality The purpose of this paper is to understand the behaviour exhibited in a specific case study using Freud’s psychodynamic theory and Allport’s trait theory of personality. Personality is defined as the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of an individual that perseveres over time and different situations (Perelberg Ebooks, 2008). Following a summary of the case study the paper will provide a brief overview of each theory and go into detail about how each theory explains the behaviour and personality of Judy, a mother who is the focus of the case study. Judy loves cleaning her house. She desires receiving compliments regarding her cleanliness. Judy spends every weekend cleaning. Whenever guests were invited over Judy would spend a lot of time and effort making sure her house was spotless. She would instruct the kids on acceptable conversation and organise frequent family meetings. Judy did not understand why other family members wouldn’t take cleaning seriously. A neighbour once accidently left grass clippings on her front lawn which resulted in Judy ignoring that neighbour for two years. Even though the family were not in any financial troubles Judy would force everyone to take extreme measures to save money. Judy would get mad when her friends didn’t invite her to dinner parties. She frequently criticises her friends and does not understand why someone would not want to be her friend. The first theory that will be discussed is Freud’s psychodynamic theory. Psychodynamic theory explains personality by focusing on the conscious and unconscious motivation behind human behaviour, feeling and emotion (Shelder, 2010). Freud stressed that the mind is not a single construct, but is in fact made up of separate components. These mental processes are fuelled by sexual and aggressive urges. These urges stem from instinctual and biological drives (Perelberg Ebooks, 2008). Some of these urges may be unacceptable on a conscious level and are repressed into the unconscious where they build up over time until they influence thoughts, feelings or behaviour. The mind is divided into three components that house these urges. The id is an unconscious component that seeks pleasure. The superego is constructed from internalised rules and expectations. The ego mediates between the unconscious urges of the id and the firm rules of the superego. The interactions between these components determine human personality and behaviour. This model on human behaviour is called Freud’s Structural Model (Freud, 1961). Freud proposed that adult human behaviour is influenced by childhood experiences (Freud Hall, 2014). Specifically he proposed a model where childhood sexual development would influence adulthood personality and behaviour. Inadequate development in a psychosexual stage would result in a fixation that would negatively influence behaviour and personality later on in life. In order to deal with these issues the mind can employ a range of defence mechanisms. Defence mechanisms are unconscious processes that distort reality to reduce unpleasant feelings and thoughts such as anxiety (Freud, 1992). These processes arise from the ego. Anxiety and other unpleasant feelings are a result of the id or superego becoming too demanding and causing distress. The second perspective that will be used is Allport’s Trait Theory. Allport’s theory suggests that human behaviour and personality is influenced by emotional, cognitive and behavioural tendencies called traits (Allport Allport, 1921). A trait can either be a predisposition to behave in a certain manner or it could be a personality characteristic. These traits can be used to obtain an understanding of a subject’s overall personality. Allport organised these traits into a hierarchical structure with three levels. Cardinal traits lie at the top of the hierarchy and are traits that govern an individual’s whole behaviour or personality (Allport, 1966). Most people don’t have cardinal traits but if they do they generally only have a singular trait that dictates their behaviour and personality. The next level of traits is called central traits. These consist of general characteristics of personality present in most individuals. These traits affect behaviour the most (Allport, 1937b). The last level of traits is secondary traits which are characteristics that are only apparent when in contact with specific external stimuli. These secondary traits can conflict with central traits when activated and account for uncommon displays of behaviour which may contradict overall personality. A major theme of Allport’s theory is that of functional autonomy, which states that adult behaviour and personality is not related to earlier experiences but behaviour first started as a drive for a separate motive which over time the desire for the drive outgrows the motive resulting in the drive being separate, or autonomous from the original drive (Allport, 1937a). Since the original motive for the behaviour is lost it is difficult to find the source or reasoning behind behavioural traits. Freud will be the first theorist that will be used to discuss Judy’s behaviours and personality. Freud explains Judy’s excessive cleanliness due to an inadequate development of the anal stage of psychosexual development in childhood (Freud Hall, 2014). In the anal stage, which lasts from 18 months to three years of age the child is learning to become toilet trained which is the first step in autonomy from parents. Properly developing this skill leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence. The outcome of this stage is dependent on the methods employed by the parents to teach bowl control (Freud Hall, 2014). If parents are too strict then the child may develop an anal-retentive personality which results in the child being orderly, rigid and obsessive. In this case study Judy is showing signs of an anal-retentive personality by her obsession on having a clean house and her strict rules on where items go in the kitchen. This behaviour is maintained by her superego which dominates her thoughts, feelings and behaviour (Freud, 1961). Judy’s strict rules on cleanliness and order may be the reason why she is so controlling in the family’s financial situation, due to her strict nature on cleanliness carrying over to other aspects of her life such as finance. Judy maintains order by frequently organising family meetings which are an outlet for her unconscious desires of order to manifest. Her feelings regarding her relationships with other people are repressed into her unconscious where they build up and come out via criticism to Sarah, her daughter or to the recipients face. Judy seeks approval from her guests. This approval is a major part of her id. Judy pursues approval for her id by using strict rules from her superego to gather compliments regarding her home. Judy’s quest for approval results in anxiety from keeping a clean house and frustration from guests not inviting her to dinner. Anxiety is a threat to the ego from impulses generated by the id (Freud, 1992). She uses defence mechanisms to reduce anxiety. Defence mechanisms are an unconscious process that distorts reality so that the threat impulses to the ego do not become conscious (Freud, 1992). Whenever someone does not want her friendship Judy uses denial to ignore any criticisms she may have said which resulted in her loss of friendship. She may repress any memories where she acted in a way that is not friendly. To gain more information a psychodynamic psychologist would use performance based measures such as a projective test or free association (MacCann, Matthews, Zeidner, Roberts, 2003). Performance based measures reveal underlying attitudes and implicit motivations due to their indirect nature. These tests do not provide information about what the subject is thinking or feeling. A specific measure that would be used to gather more information is free association (Oxburgh Dando, 2011). Free association is a psychoanalytic technique where the individual is allowed to talk about whatever thoughts come to mind. This is an indirect measure that can provide information on an individual’s thoughts and feelings. The therapist would listen and take notes to try and find any underlying unconscious motivation to gain a better understanding of the individual’s personality and behaviour. This method can reveal dispositions about personality and behaviour that an individual is not consciously aware of possessing. The second theorist that will be used is Allport. Judy is obsessive to the point that it is classed as a cardinal trait. Her obsessive trait affects nearly every other aspect of her personality and behaviour. Her main high central traits are authoritative, economical, cleanly and sociable, which are all affected by her cardinal trait. These trait names are from Allport’s list of trait names that best define personality (Allport Odbert, 1936). Judy’s authoritative trait is evident in the way she informs her children on proper conversation topics and when organising family meetings to discuss the proper procedure and location of items. Her economical trait is shown through her strict rules governing her family’s finances. This is a clear example of how her cardinal trait has affected a central trait to the extreme. The trait of cleanliness is clearly shown to be an important trait of her personality as evident by her passionate cleaning ritual. Her sociability has a secondary trait where she gets angry when someone disrupts her clean home, shown by the neighbour who she ignored for two years. Judy also gets frustrated when other family members don’t see the value in keeping the home organised and clean, further supporting her secondary trait. One method to gain more information on Judy’s personality and behaviour can be to administer a self-report inventory such as the California Personality Inventory (CPI). The CPI is an inventory that measures personality traits (Groth-Marnat Mullard, 2010). The questions on the CPI relate to normal behaviours, feelings and attitudes regarding family and social matters. Self-report inventories directly measure how a person thinks and feels (MacCann, et al., 2003). Due to this explicit method the inventory is a good way to identify personality states and other behavioural traits that they can recognize about themselves. The two different perspectives share many similarities in their assessment of Judy’s behaviour and personality. Both perspectives conclude that her obsessive reliance on strict rules is a major factor in her philosophy on financial matters. Both perspectives believe that a certain characteristic (obsessiveness/cleanliness), dominates her whole personality and its effect carries over into other aspects of her personality and behaviour. Lastly both perspectives agree that her frustration at not being invited out to dinner parties by her friends is social in nature. Although the two perspectives seem to come to similar conclusions regarding Judy’s behaviour there are a couple of major differences. Freud’s perspective believes that her obsession towards cleanliness is due to a childhood experience concerning toilet training while Allport believes that cardinal traits such as this are developed later on in life and due to functional autonomy it is not possible to find out the cause of this trait. Freud’s theory has many positive benefits. It is a theory that is based on experimental psychology and it explains characteristics of personality (Freud Hall, 2014). Unfortunately the theory has an overemphasis on the unconsciousness and relies too heavily on childhood experiences (Perelberg Ebooks, 2008). The theory is mainly backed by data gathered via case studies and clinical observations which are not reliable as data gathered from a wide range of sources. Allport’s theory is based on objective and statistical data (Allport, 1966). There are no biases compared to Freud whose relationship with his mother is said to have greatly influenced his work (Allport Allport, 1921). The theory can account for any behavioural or personality aspect with traits. The theory itself is easy to understand and can be used with many different assessment measures. There are a few negative connotations with Allport’s perspective. The theory is a poor predictor of future personality and behaviour since the theory does not explain how traits are maintained (Bertocci, 1940). The theory does not discuss how the traits themselves have developed nor does the theory explain how personality works due to functional autonomy. There is also some discrepancy on the consistency of traits although that is partially explained via secondary traits. Allport’s theory does not take into account ecological, social or situational factors that may affect behaviour or personality. The definition of trait is broad and includes attitudes, habit and other tendencies such as need under one classification which may decrease the validity of traits. Freud’s perspective states that Judy’s major behavioural and personality attributes are due to an inadequate development in her childhood anal psychosexual development stage which has caused Judy to exhibit an anal-retentive personality that affects her behaviour negatively. Her behaviour results in the production of anxiety and Judy uses ego defence mechanisms to reduce anxiety. More information about Judy’s personality and behaviour can be gathered via free association. Allport’s perspective suggests that Judy’s behaviour and personality is due to a cardinal trait of obsessiveness which affects every other aspect of her personality from keeping her house clean and organised to managing her family’s finances. More information about Judy’s personality can be gained by conducting a self-report inventory on personality. Both perspectives focused on different aspects of Judy’s personality. Freud’s theory focused on the unconscious motivation behind Judy’s actions while Allport looked at the actions in detail. They both came to similar conclusions in that Judy is obsessive and that this is negatively affecting her relationships. References Allport, F. H., Allport, G. W. (1921). Personality Traits: Their Classification and Measurement. The Journal of Abnormal Psychology and Social Psychology, 16(1), 6-40. Allport, G. W. (1937a). The Functional Autonomy of Motives. The American Journal of Psychology, 50(1/4), 141-156. Allport, G. W. (1937b). Personality: A psychological interpretation. Allport, G. W. (1966). Traits revisited. American psychologist, 21(1), 1. Allport, G. W., Odbert, H. S. (1936). Trait-names: A psycho-lexical study. Psychological Monographs, 47(1), i-171. Bertocci, P. A. (1940). A critique of G. W. Allports theory of motivation. Psychological Review, 47(6), 501-532. Freud, A. (1992). The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence: Karnac Books. Freud, S. (1961). THE EGO AND THE ID. The American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 5(1), 656. doi:10.1097/00000441-196111000-00027 Freud, S., Hall, G. S. (2014). A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis. Auckland: The Floating Press. Groth-Marnat, G., Mullard, M. J. (2010). California Psychological Inventory. In The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology: John Wiley Sons, Inc. MacCann, C., Matthews, G., Zeidner, M., Roberts, R. D. (2003). PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE: A REVIEW OF SELF-REPORT AND PERFORMANCE-BASED TESTING. [Article]. International Journal of Organizational Analysis (2003), 11(3), 247-274. Oxburgh, G. E., Dando, C. J. (2011). Psychology and interviewing: what direction now in our quest for reliable information? The British Journal of Forensic Practice, 13(2), 135-144. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/14636641111134378 Perelberg, R. J., Ebooks, C. (2008). Freud: A Modern Reader. Hoboken: Wiley [Imprint]. Shelder, J. (2010). The Efficacy of Psychodynamic Psychotherapy. Psychotherapy in Australia, 16(3), 38-51.

Rapid Growth of Christianity in the First Centuries Essay

Account for the rapid growth of Christianity in the first centuries. Christianity spread rapidly from C.E for three hundred years until it was legalized. The fact that this religion spread so quickly is one of the most amazing feats in history – in just 300 years Christianity went from one person preaching about a God, to a legalized religion. One of the main reasons for this rapid growth is that Christianity was open to anyone, in Judaism, you were not automatically a Jew and some synagogues did not allow people to convert. The great thing about Christianity was that anybody could become a Christian. People often thought of Christianity as Judaism lite. This was because Christianity descended from Judaism and had a lot of the same beliefs – it was just easier to become a Christian and the rules were not quite as strict. Both Judaism and Christianity are monotheistic religions so they only believe in one god. The Jewish religion was attractive to gentiles – because of its monotheistic beliefs and moral code – who were tired of worshiping the Greek and Roman pantheons (Gods & Goddesses). It got to the point when Jewish Synagogues would no longer allow Christians in them so the Christians Christianity is said to have the highest standard of love to god and to man. Christianity often appealed to poor people who felt alienated by mainstream religions. Back then, most people would be able to speak fluent Greek, the fact that Christianity was written and mostly spoken in Greek made it appeal to the majority of the people because they could read it. Judaism however was spoken in Hebrew, so only people that could speak Hebrew could understand it. This is why the new testament was written in Greek. The Roman Empire had a weak religion, so it was very easy to get people to convert to Christianity. After a group of people converted, others often followed behind. So many people converted to Christianity that Rome became the ‘base’ of the religion. That Is why the Pope lives in Rome – this is where Christianity was ‘properly’ formed.

Roman Architecture from a Typological Standpoint

History and Theory of Architecture and Design Discuss Roman architecture from a typological point of view by emphasizing:The displacement from preexistent to freshly developed typologiesThe accomplishment gained in building techniques wherever applicableSee at least two different types. List of Illustrations 1. Rome, Forum Romanum: program Steve Watson, 1996,The Roman Forum[ online ] . Available from stevewatson.info/Rome/Italy/diary.html. Accessed 14ThursdayApril 2014 2. Athinais, Stoa Basileios: digital Reconstruction of the edifice Kronostaf [ online ] . Available from www.kronostaf.com/nr/images/d/d3/Stoa-Basileios.jpg. Accessed 14ThursdayApril 2014 3. Rome, Basilica Aemilia: program Vitruvius – De Architectura Libri X [ on-line ] . Available from www.vitruvius.be/aemilia.htm. Accessed 14ThursdayApril 2014 4. Rome, Arch of Augustus: a possible Reconstruction of the lift American Journal of Archeology [ online ] . Available from www.ajaonline.org/article/90. Accessed 14ThursdayApril 2014 5. Rome, Pantheon: program ( above ) and subdivision ( below ) My archicad [ online ] . Available from myarchicad.free.fr/Etudes/Pantheon % 20Rome/Pantheo % Rome01.htm. Accessed 14ThursdayApril 2014 6. Rome, Pantheon: the dome Travel there guide [ online ] . Available from www.gothereguide.com/pantheon+rome-place. Accessed 14ThursdayApril 2014 It is hard, without any uncertainty, to discourse about what can be defined as Roman architecture. Roman civilisation covered a immense clip span that began with the foundation of theUrbs( as Rome was called by Latin authors and philosophers ) , traditionally dated to 753 BC, and collapsed with the autumn of the Western Roman Empire, in 476 AD. Therefore, it is deducible that all the populations it got in touch with over the centuries influenced its civilization. Unlike Grecian architecture, merchandise of a self-assured civilisation that was able to keep an unbelievable integrity of artistic intent and that is still recognizable today as belonging to the Grecian civilization ( Ward-Perkins 1912 ) , Roman art and architecture â€Å"Were born and took form in a universe that was already dominated both by the substance and by the thought of Grecian accomplishment, foremost through the Grecian settlements in the West, at 2nd manus through Etruria.† ( Ward-Perkins, 1912, p.9 ) As the consequence of the lucifer of these influences, it could be debatable to understand when it is appropriated to speak about Roman architecture as a definable architectural manner. Harmonizing to Sear ( 1982, p.28 ) , â€Å"It is when all the outside influences had been forged together and assimilated, when techniques and decorations were so to the full understood that they could be used with assurance to make something fresh and original. This procedure of hammering a new manner began under Augustus.† In this essay the displacement from the pre-existing to the freshly developed typologies and the proficient inventions produced by Romans will be analyzed by concentrating on the relationship between the Roman and earlier architectures. In order to discourse this alteration, four typologies, all belonging to the Augustan or subsequently periods, will be taken in consideration. In the first paragraph the writer will reason about the connexion between the Greek agora and the Roman forum. The 2nd typology will concern the beginnings and the chief characteristics of the Roman basilica. The 3rd typology discussed will see the honorific edifice. Finally, the writer will exemplify the typology of the spiritual edifices, concentrating on Roman temples and the Pantheon in peculiar. As antecedently said, it is merely with the beginning of the Augustan epoch that a proper Roman architecture developed. This happened when the Foster boy of Julius Caesar, Augustus, started a redevelopment undertaking of his new born empire’s capital metropolis. Like Suetonius ( 1977 ) studies, â€Å"He found Rome a metropolis of bricks and left it a metropolis of marble.† , and he did it harmonizing to his personal gustatory sensation and involvements. In fact, it has to be considered that a crowned head is by definition the â€Å"architect† of his land. Furthermore, the rise of the Empire is a minute of primary importance for the Roman history. Since that, the Romans of the Republic have ever avoided to allow a individual single keeping absolute power. From this position the slaying of Julius Caesar could hold been justified by the senator’s will of continuing the unity of the Republic. In 27 BC, upon the assignment of the first Roman emperor, all the po wers were put in the custodies of one, legalizing him to became non merely the swayer of the Roman properties but even a kind of God ; to boot, Rome was per excellence the symbol of the emperor’s power. For all these grounds it was inevitable that Augustus likings were a major factor in determining a public gustatory sensation ( Ward-Perkins, 1912 ) . One of the most representative plants in this sense is the continuance of the Forum Romanum, originally begun by Augustus’s male parent Julius Caesar. When believing about the Forum, it is ineluctable to seek to happen a possible connexion with the Greek agora, the public infinite built by the Athenians. The Grecian agora was the topographic point where administrative, politic, legal, commercial and moreover activities occurred and the stoa or colonnade porch was likely the most of import edifice standing in the square: it is defined by Watkin ( 1986, p.49 ) as a â€Å"Covered meeting-place for a broad scope of activities.† However, it has been argued ( Pergolis, cited by Carlos Zeballos ) that the purpose of the agora was to give the citizen uneasiness ; on the other manus the Roman forum’s intent was to do him cognizant of the State. The purpose of the Forum Romanum was to remind the Romans of the award of the old Republic, and the victory of the new leader, Augustus. This aspiration is proved by the plants he started since the early old ages of his reign in this location. Once the redevelopment undertaking ended, the forum consisted in two long basilicas ( Aemilia and Julia ) , three temples, two of them started by Julius Caesar ( temple of Concord and temple of Castor ) , and a new last one, dedicated to the Divus Julius, Augustus former male parent. The temple of Divus Julius was flanked by a monumental building, the Arch of Augustus. All of these architectural buildings played a cardinal function in the Roman history. The Roman basilica is one of the most representative typology of edifices in the Roman architecture. It operated as a meeting-place for the citizens, an exchange for merchandisers and even as a tribunal of justness. In this sense, it has been argued ( Purdue University ) that the design hailed from an Hellenic Hellenic edifice called Stoa Basileios ( Grecian: I I ¬ ) , located in the Athenian agora. In this peculiar instance, the interlingual rendition of the term Basileios is Royal: it was in fact identified as the place of the Archon Basileus, one of the nine head magistrates in antediluvian Athens, whose responsibilities were spiritual and juridical. It appeared to be a rectangular edifice with eight Doric columns along the facade and four interior ( Foundation of the Hellenic World, 2006 ) , a form that good reminds of the basilica. A last grounds of the Greek beginning of the Roman basilica is the spelling of the word basilica itself that, as Welsh stated, came from the Grecia n term â€Å"basilike† , which means â€Å"kingly† . The basilica normally had a rectangular program and it was usually timber-roofed. It besides could hold a rectangular tribune, a individual or two apsiss and an interior colonnade that divided the infinite. The city manager entryway could hold been on either the transverse or the longitudinal axes ( MacDonald, 1986 ) . An illustration of this typology could be given by The Basilica Aemilia. It was one of theearliest basilicas: the first building is dated from 179 BC and it is stated that it has had a two-storied colonnaded facade of 16 bays as a stoa. On the interior, it was located an enclosed hall, where the magistrate could pattern his work. The basilica was wholly rebuilt by Augustus. The Imperial basilica was divided in three parts: the porch, the hall and the †tabaerne† , six square room that were likely used as offices. This porch was absolutely similar to the 1 of the basilica Julia: it consisted in two floors supported by marble’s pilasters and columns. The land floor facade was divided in 14 arches overcame by a Doric Lodge. The usage of the arch is one of the inventions that distinguish Roman architecture from 1s that came before. Greeks ne'er learned to construct an arched building and used a post-and-bean construction, as they did in their stoa. This technique allowed Romans to construct larger suites: â€Å"Arches couldredirecta edifice ‘s weight over long distances to thick stations, leting for huge, comparativelyunobstructedsuites† ( essential-humanities ) . In this instance, because of the singular size of the room, it was necessary to present some metal ironss to reenforce the construction. From the porch, the visitant entered in a secondary room that worked as passageway to the cardinal hall. It consisted in three naves separated by columns ; the side’s 1s supported a 2nd floor. ( Sear, 1982 ) Traveling on, the 2nd type that will be discussed will be the honorific memorial, concentrating on the best-known 1s, the triumphal arches. Boldwin Smith ( 1956 ) asserts that the beginning of triumphal arches has to be sought in the ceremonials of deification of the sovereign that gave a heavenly content to an arched portal, as it happened during the Hellenistic Epiphany. He even stated that merely the common factors in the history of ceremonials could explicate the manner in which the arched passageway was used to mark the ceremonial of Latin Triumph. It was in fact a Latin version of an Etruscan rite in which the Triumphant One was acclaimed as a God. A monumental arch, despite its monolithic and elemental signifier, is a complicated sort of edifice. In every archway the radiality works in opposing way at the same clip, â€Å"It focuses down and in toward the curve’s unseeable centre point, but at the same clip suggests mutual extension fanning outward and upward†. ( MacDonald, 1986, p.75-76, 1sthappening within the paragraphs ) MacDonald ( 2neodymiumhappening within the same paragraphs ) explains that this implies a tenseness that is regulated and framed either by flanking walls, or monolithic wharfs and by masonry piled up above the arch and its supports: this counterbalance is so increased by adding orders and ornaments. Triumphal arches were built in Rome since the 2nd century BC, nevertheless it was Augustus who set the manner for constructing them all over the Empire ( Watkins ) . Sear ( 1982 ) states that in the Forum Romanum it was erected a triumph Arch known as the Arch of Augustus, rebuilt in the 19 BC perchance with fragments from an earlier one, dated 29 BC. A description is given by MacDonald ( 1986 ) : it was a ternary gateway in which the centre nothingness was arched and set between immense wharfs with a outstanding Attic above ; side gateways were trabeated. The orders stood on a pedestals and base on the same degree. The interior one was overlapped with the wharfs and topped by a Corinthian capital. Wilson Jones ( 2000 ) claims that about two-thirds of all imperial columns were Corinthian. This order in fact suited the emperors for many grounds: it was Augustus pick to advance an Hellenic image of his Rome, eventually capable of fiting Greece culturally. For Augustus ‘ purpose t he Corinthian order was perfect to arouse the yesteryear without falling in a mere transcript of Grecian architecture. Furthermore, the acanthus, the taking subject of the order, was a symbol of sacredness but it was non related to any peculiar deity. This characteristic permitted Augustus to advance his imagine of a God. Political deductions in Roman architecture were involved even in the last type of edifice that will be analyzed, the spiritual 1. Roman temples find their beginnings in both Etruscan architecture and, as the old 1s, Grecian architecture. Early Roman temples were realized in brick and followed Etruscan design by demoing high dais and deeply columned porch. After the 2nd century, Grecian orders begun to be employed in the lift and, like Grecian temples, they were east orientated. However, Roman temples tradition had a facade that was easy recognizable thanks to the monumental steps that leaded to the porch, the lone portion of the edifice in which columns were erected ( Dried-up 1982 ) . Above all the others, The Pantheon is the most known Roman temple and it is considered, together with the Parthenon, the most representative memorial of classical architecture. The first Parthenon, commissioned by Agrippa, Augustus’ general and son-in-law, is dated between 27-25 BC. The purpose was to stand for Augustus’ Imperial program’s chef-d'oeuvre: in fact it has been claimed ( Ancient History Encyclopedia, 2014 ) that it may hold been designed as a topographic point where the emperor could do public visual aspects in order to remind his people of his Godhead position. However, the edifice was likely destroyed by fire and rebuilt by Emperor Domitian. The temple once more was destructed by a lightning bolt. The current Pantheon was built by Adrian on his return trip to Rome as the new emperor in 118 AD. Alongside his designers, he decided to construct the new Temple by utilizing a new design that attempts to unify the Greek’s porch and the Roman rotunda ( Wilson Jones, 2000 ) , a typology that had already been used in earlier Roman temples. It has been argued that Hadrian’s purpose was to plan the Pantheon in order â€Å"to turn out that the Imperial order, with its regulation of jurisprudence and its nucleus for the Republic was portion o f the Godhead order, initiated by it and subsumed to it.† ( McEwan, 1993, cited by Art History Presentation Archive, 2007 ) . The accent of the edifice is wholly focused on the interior infinite. The formal strategy of the inside could look rather simple, a cylindrical membranophone topped by a dome. By contrast, this building shows all the astonishing abilities owned by Roman designers and applied scientists. The construction of the rotunda is composed by eight wharfs which support eight arches, which in bend correspond to the eight bays. From this position, the membranophone could be seen as an arched construction designed to cut down weight and minimise the effects of differential colony. Once once more the prevalent order is the Corinthian: Corinthian columns of giallo antico are free-standing in each bay and stand for a superb device to give graduated table. The dome was the biggest of all time realized until the devising of Santa Maria del Fiore’s one in Firenze by Brunelleschi. In blending the concrete, another of Roman’s most superb inventions, several make fulling stuffs were used and graded in order that the construction resulted lighter at the dome’s top by utilizing pumice. The oculus captivates visitor’s oculus and is the lone beginning of visible radiation in the whole edifice, possibly to mean that in the Temple of all Gods the merely light admitted can come from the celestial spheres above. ( Wilson Jones, 2000 ) . In this essay the writer has illustrated the development of the displacement from the preexistent typologies to the freshly developed 1s, every bit good as the proficient inventions implemented. Furthermore, the Roman emperors ‘ political and personal attack to their architectures has been discussed. Four instances of survey were presented: foremost, a relation between the Greek agora and the Roman forum was demonstrated by demoing similarities in their utilizations but different political purposes ; secondly, the writer illustrated the Roman basilica as a new type of edifice that perchance derived from the Grecian stoa. Traveling on, political deductions and Hellenistic beginnings have been debated and proficient characteristics have been shown by showing the triumphal arch ‘s typology. Finally, the last instance, the spiritual edifice type, has been analyzed by concentrating on the Roman temple with two intents: in the first topographic point to explicate analogies with earlier illustrations and so to depict one of the most important edifice in Roman architecture, the Pantheon. Bibliography Ancient History Encyclopedia ( 2014 )Pantheon[ Online ] . Available from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ancient.eu.com/Pantheon/ [ Accessed 05 April 2014 ] Art History Presentation Archive ( 2014 )The Pantheon and Hadrian’s Building Program[ Online ] . Available from hypertext transfer protocol: //honorsaharchive.blogspot.co.uk/2007/01/pantheon-and-hadrians-building-program.html [ Accessed 05 April 2014 ] Baldwin Smith, E. ( 1978 )Architectural Symbolism of Imperial Rome and the in-between Ages1stEd. 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